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Acrylamide News — Cancer from Cooking & Fast Food

Robert Ross
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Acrylamide News — Cancer from Cooking & Fast Food

More Reasons to Eat Raw Food!

Acrylamide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula C₃H₅NO. Its IUPAC name is prop-2-enamide. It is a white odorless crystalline solid, soluble in water, ethanol, ether, and chloroform. – Wikipedia
acrylamide_featureopti

06/01/05 — Headlines warned that a 1 oz. serving of potato chips exceed safety levels for a cancer-causing compound created by COOKING – called  acrylamide. Many common processed foods may now require a cancer warning under California’s anti-toxics law – Proposition 65.1
The original report from the Environmental Law frenchfriesoptiFoundation in Oakland, California, analyzed 12 brands of potato chips. One contained 6.5 parts per million acrylamide, 910 times more than the state’s unacceptable levels. The lowest acrylamide levels were still 38 times higher than what that the state considers acceptable.1

In 2002 (see the original ABC News story below), an attempt was made to require Burger King and McDonald’s to put warnings on French fries because of high levels of acrylamide. That case has been stayed pending a decision on the state’s health rules related to acrylamide.1

Follow the Money!

Cooking food quickly at high temperatures – the principle of the entire “fast food” industry – means more profits for the fast food companies. Unfortunately, that also puts customers at risk. Fast cooking at high temperatures of an amino acid, asparagine (in all foods) combined with the sugars in plant foods, results in the formation of acrylamide.2 Cooking with temperatures above 365 degrees Fahrenheit also produces this health hazard.2,3 Acrylamide can’t be detected in unheated and boiled foods, because the minimum temperature to create acrylamide is 120 degrees centigrade, 248 degree Fahrenheit. (boiling occurs at 100° C, 212° F) 2,3 (.

Potato chip manufacturers can reduce, not eliminate, acrylamide by using lower temperatures and lengthening cooking times. But even with less acrylamide, chips still can cause health problems due to excess calories, immune-system suppression from vegetable fats, and cellular damage caused by trans-fats.

What is Acrylamide?

Acrylamide is a white, crystalline, odorless substance used in a variety of industries.2 The most common uses are to purify drinking water and for sewage treatment – removing particulate matters by combining with solid impurities making them more easily filtered out of the water. Acrylamide is also used to make dyes, cosmetics, food packaging materials, soil-conditioning agents, plastics, and grouting agents. In each of these uses, some of the original acrylamide remains in the finished product. Also, acrylamide is a component of cigarette smoke.

Acrylamide is the result of heating foods containing sugars (carbohydrates) and protein. Because acrylamide formation can be the result of traditional cooking methods it is believed to have been present in cooked foods for thousands of years, and acrylamide levels in cooked organic foods would not be expected to be any different than levels in cooked foods that are not organic. So it is COOKING itself that is the problem. Acrylamide is only one of many toxins created by cooking mentioned in this web site.

The actual effect of acrylamide on human health, is still under investigation (see “Health Hazard…” on the right). Studies in animals are not considered completely conclusive for humans.9 Subtle effects on the developing nervous system of the fetus may be possible at even lower levels than studied.

Raw Food is the Answer

Cooking anything at all that contains proteins combined with sugar or carbs creates acrylamide – which includes almost all fruits and veggies – so being a vegan or vegetarian doesn’t protect you! Only eating these foods raw is a sue way to avoid this hazard,

You may notice in the chart on the right that cooking meat produces no acrylamide – after all, meat has no sugars or carbs, just proteins and fats. But cooking meat creates many other nasty, cancer-causing substances including heterocyclic amines, N-nitroso compounds (nitrosamines) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzopyrene).10,11

So raw food again tops the list for good health and disease prevention. Studies have shown for decades that eating plenty of fruits and veggies prevents all kinds of dis-ease. But they never list “cooking” in those studies as one of the variables – a huge oversight. However, common sense tells us that if the antioxidants, vitamins and minerals in fruits and veggies that help prevent dis-ease are largely destroyed by cooking, then the preventative effect is strongest when eating them raw.

  • The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has released a consumer warning on acrylamide to limit exposure given that it has been found to be carcinogenic in animals (2).
  • CDC scientists found measurable levels of acrylamide in the blood of 99.9% of the U.S. population. Smokers have nearly twice the levels of acrylamide in their blood as nonsmokers (3).
  • The World Health Organication (WHO) classifies acrylamide as a probable human carcinogen. This is based on data showing it can increase the risk of some types of cancer in lab animals. The WHO has not reviewed its position on acrylamide since 1997, and at that time, acrylamide was not known to be found in so many starchy foods at such high levels (4).
  •  The National Toxicology Program (NTP) concluded in its 2011 Report on Carcinogens that acrylamide is “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen” based on the studies in lab animals (5).
  •  The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maintains the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS), an electronic database that contains information on human health effects from exposure to various substances in the environment. The EPA classifies acrylamide as “likely to be a carcinogen to humans” based on studies in lab animals (6).

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a_abclogo2From ABC News, 6/25/02 — The World Health Organization began a three-day emergency meeting in Geneva today to evaluate the recent discovery that certain popular starchy foods, from potato chips to bread, contain a chemical that can cause cancer.

Deep-Fried Dangers
Cancer Threat Suggested by Recent Studies

New research suggests that you may have one more reason to avoid deep-fried foods. Never before has the agency assembled so many experts, so quickly, to evaluate food safety. “This is not just another food scare. This is an issue where we find a substance that could give cancer, in foods, and in significant amounts,” Jorgen Schlundt, head of WHO’s Food Safety Program, told ABCNEWS’ John McKenzie.

The alarms were triggered in April with the announcement that scientists in Sweden had tested more than 100 food items and discovered that potato and cereal products that were fried, oven-baked and deep-fried may contain high levels of acrylamide, a chemical used to make plastics and dyes that has caused cancer in animals.

“It did come as a surprise because it has not been considered as a normal process that you would get acrylamide out of food,” said Schlundt. Researchers say it’s all about heat. The higher the cooking temperature, the greater the levels of acrylamide.

Bread was found to contain 50 micrograms of acrylamide. Cereals, cookies and crackers, and potato chips: 160, 410 and 1,200, respectively.

Too Soon to Worry?

Since the Swedish study, scientists in several other European countries have tested many of these popular foods with similar results. But here in the United States, many researchers warn we don’t know enough about acrylamide to start worrying.

While acrylamide causes cancer in rats, there is no evidence it does the same in people. “We put all our reliance upon a rat strain to predict how we’re going to respond. Sometimes they do predict it well and many times they do not,” said Edward Calabrese, director of the Northeast Regional Environmental Public Health Center at the University of Massachusetts.

Some researchers point out that even if they prove acrylamide is a carcinogen in humans, they would then have to determine what level is dangerous.

“It’s going to take an awful lot of time and effort to tease out whether it has any carcinogenic effect on humans at the doses we’re getting,” said Stephen Sase of the department of veterinary physiology and pharmocology at Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas.

In the meantime, scientists at the World Health Organization meeting must decide whether they know enough about the risks to recommend changes in eating habits. Some researchers say if you needed yet another reason to pass on the potato chips, now you’ve got it.

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Common Cooking Temperatures
Acrylamide forms 120° C (248° F)
Boiling 100° C (212° F)
Steaming (sea level) 100° C (212° F)
Steaming (at 5000 ft.) 95° C (203° F)
Pressure Cooker 121° C (250° F)
Roasting (coffee) 190- 220° C (374-428° F)
Roasting (peanuts) 160° C (320° F)
Frying 150- 230° C (150-446° F)
Baking (bread crust) 120° C (248° F)

Acrylamide in Selected Foods (ppb)5,6
McDonald’s French fries 497
Popeye’s French fries 1030
Wendy’s French fries 302
Lay’s Classic Potato Chips 549
Kettle Chips Lightly Salted Natural Gourmet Potato 1265
KFC Mashed Potatoes <10
Idaho Spuds Mashed Potatoes 0
Spaghetti 0
Rice 0
Pepperidge Farm Dark Pumpernickel (not toasted) 34
Pepperidge Farm Dark Pumpernickel (toasted) 364
Sara Lee Plain Mini Bagels (not toasted) 58
Sara Lee Plain Mini Bagels (toasted) 343
Dare Breton Thin Wheat Crackers 300
Wasa Original Crispbread Fiber Rye 504
Utz White Corn Tortillas 111
General Mills Cheerios 266
General Mills Lucky Charms 176
Kellogg’s Corn Flakes 77
Kellogg’s Raisin Bran 156
Oatmeal Porridge 0
Orville Redenbacher’s Gourmet Popping (Popcorn) 157
Herr’s Extra Thin Pretzels 309
Snyder’s of Hanover Veggie Crisps 832
Terra Stix 990
Blue Diamond Smokehouse Almonds 457
Planters Smoked Almonds 339
Smucker’s Natural Creamy Peanut Butter 125
Ghirardelli Unsweetened Cocoa 316
Hershey’s Cocoa 909
Good Health Natural Foods Honey Dijon 1168
Lipton Recipe Secrets Onion Soup & Dip Mix 1184
Maxwell House Slow Roast (ground, not brewed) 209
Maxwell House Instant Coffee (powder, not brewed) 263
Starbuck’s Coffee Columbia Ground (not brewed) 175
Chicken-bits 39
Deep fried fish 39

 

Health Hazards of Potato Chips?

CapeCod-PC-RobustRussettoptHow many vegans or vegetarians have scarfed down tons of potato chips thinking that they were preferable to meat! We all know people who don’t eat meat that still are not making healthy food choices – and are still cooking up a storm!

But even the seemingly “safe” potato chip is a killer! Packed with high levels of acrylamide, these convenience foods can damage the nervous system, impair fertility, harm genetic material, and induce the formation of tumors in experimental animals. Cancers of the thyroid gland, female breast tissues, male testicles, and mouth are most common.4 Because acrylamide causes cancer in laboratory animals in high doses, it is considered a potential human carcinogen.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates the lifelong (70 years) risk of cancer for people who consume 1 microgram/Kg a day is about 1 in 1000.7 A research group from Stockholm University and the National Food Administration (NFA) found one microgram of acrylamide in just half a gram of potato chips or two grams of french fries. Estimates are that people typically eat an average of 35-40 micrograms a day of acrylamide.8

1 microgram acrylamide/kg by body weight daily and the lifetime risk for cancer.7
4.5 per 1000 (by the U.S. EPA)
0.7 per 1000 (by the WHO)
10 per 1000 (by Stockholm University)

 

Eliminate the Acrylamide – Eat Raw Food

strawberries_whole(4)As I raw foodist, I never have to worry about acrylamide. I don’t eat French fries, baked chips, and potato chips. I don’t drink coffee (roasted beans). I do, however, eat lots of fresh organic fruit – strawberries are my favorite. I also drink tea. I prefer organic green tea (steeped at 170 degrees F). Teas are dried at low temperatures and are not roasted.

So here is more sage advice you can get from any health-conscious person today, and even the folks at the American Heart Assoc. – eat 7-8 servings of fruits and vegetables daily. That is a lot of fruit and veggies. If you really follow that advice, of course eating them raw, then you can probably consider yourself a raw foodist.

Originally published 6/1/2005, updated 12/1/2016.

More Reading:

https://rawfoodlife.com/hidden-toxins-in-cooked-food/

Why Your Body isn’t Crying Out for Bottled Water from a Distant Factory

Robert Ross
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Why Your Body isn’t Crying Out for Bottled Water from a Distant Factory

 

45705559 - young girl drinking tap waterThe multinational corporations that sell bottled water today, such as Big Cola, only enter markets that are growing and profitable. With consumption of bottled water in the U.S. more than doubling every ten years, bottled water is the now overtaking soft drinks in annual sales, with billions of gallons of bottled water sold every year. That makes bottled water a multi-billion dollar business that is now more profitable than their soft drinks!

Yet, like many of the things that these mega-companies do, the water they give us may really be worse than tap water! In fact, it’s often nothing but filtered tap water anyway. In fact, some studies have shown bottled water is actually worse than tap water, especially when it’s bottled in distant countries without sufficient health controls. Sometimes your water travels thousands of miles before you get it. So you’d probably be much better off just buying your own water filter for your faucet!

  • 25% of bottled water is nothing more than filtered city water.
  • 22% of tested in a study contained contaminants above state limits.
  • Reverse osmosis used to “purify” some water actually removes everything out of the water — the bad and the good. When healthy minerals are removed the water can be acidic and actually is bad for your health.
  • The pH level of this water is below optimum levels or even acidic!
  • The FDA tests bottled water for impurities but is not required to monitor the water’s pH level.
  • Neutral water has a pH balance of 7 and an ideal pH level for drinking water 9.5.
  • Dr. Robert Young tested 60 of the best-known water brands and only two had a pH level at or above 9.5, and 30 (including best-known brands such as Fiji, Aquafina, and Perrier) had a pH level below 7.0, meaning they actually are acidic.
  • The age of the water affects its pH level, as do changes in temperature and exposure to oxygen
  • Plastic bottles harm the environment and can leach toxins into the water.
  • Most plastic water bottles are not recycled. The vast majority (80%) ends up in landfills.
  • Distribution of bottled water burns fossil fuels and results in the release of thousands of tons of emissions.
  • The filtration and processing of bottled water consumes large amounts of electricity.
  • The plastic used to make water bottles — polyethylene terephthalate (PET) — is derived from oil and generates 100 times the amount of toxic emissions as glass.
  • Bottled water sometimes travels thousands of miles to get to you, wasting fossil fuels for everything from manufacturing to transportation.
  • Some small countries that rely on water for their incomes are being raped and decimated by the bottling companies they’ve become so dependent on.

Based largely on “The pH Miracle for Weight Loss” by Dr. Robert O. Young, Grand Central Publishing, NY, 2005

Bibliography: Fruits & Vegetables & Breast Cancer Prevention

Robert Ross
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Bibliography: Fruits & Vegetables & Breast Cancer Prevention

This bibliography was originally published o this site in 2001, but is still an excellent place to start for anyone interested in breast cancer prevention, treatment and survival. It is compiled from the Cornell University Breast Cancer and the Environment Research Centers (BCERC) Environmental Risk Factors Bibliographic Database. If you have comments or suggestions for inclusion the bibliography, please send an email to Robert@RawFoodLife.com.

This bibliography is arranged topically. The topics include:

  • Review articles on the influence of fruits and vegetables on cancer prevention
  • Original epidemiologic studies
  • Case-control studies
  • Articles on nutritional supplement use
  • Articles on vegetarian diets
  • Studies on the influence of fruits and vegetables on breast cancer survival
  • Studies on the mechanisms underlying the influence of fruits and vegetables on breast cancer risk
Reviews on the influence of fruits and vegetables on cancer risk

Adlercreutz, H. (1998). Evolution, nutrition, intestinal microflora, and prevention of cancer: a hypothesis. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 217, 241-246.

Bal, D. G., and Forester, S. B. (1992). Dietary strategies for cancer prevention. Cancer 72, 1005-1010.

Beecher, C. W. W. (1994). Cancer preventive properties of varieties of Brassica oleracea: a review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59, 1166S-1170S.

Byers, T., and Guerrero, N. (1995). Epidemiologic evidence for vitamin C and vitamin E in cancer prevention. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62, 1385S-1392S.

El-Bayoumy, K., Chung, F.-L., J. Richie, J., Reddy, B. S., Cohen, L., Weisburger, J., and Wynder, E. L. (1997). Dietary control of cancer. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 216, 211-223.

Freudenheim, J. L., and Potischman, N. (1996). Cancer. In: Nutrition in Women’s Health (Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen), pp. 463-496.

Greenwald, P. (1996). The potential of dietary modification to prevent cancer. Preventive Medicine 25, 41-43.

Greenwald, P., and Clifford, C. Dietary Prevention. In Cancer Prevention and Control, P. Greenwald, B. S. Karmer and D. L. Weed, eds. (Bethesda, Maryland), pp. 303-327.

Ip, C., and Lisk, D. J. (1996). The attributes of selenium-enriched garlic in cancer prevention. In Dietary Phytochemicals in Cancer Prevention and Treatment, A. I. F. C. Research, ed. (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 179-187.

The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. (1994). The effect of vitamin E and beta-carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers (and comment: Antioxidant vitamins not yet proved). The New England Journal of Medicine 330, 1029-1035; comment:1080-1081.

Kohlmeier, L., Simonsen, N., and Mottus, K. (1995). Dietary modifiers of carcinogenesis. Environmental Health Perspectives 103, 177-184.

Potter, J. D. (1997). Cancer prevention: epidemiology and experiment. Cancer Letters 114, 7-9.

Sanzkaranarayanan, R., and Mathew, B. (1996). Retinoids as cancer-preventive agents. In Principals of Chemoprevention, Stewart, McGregor and Kleihues, eds.: IARC Scientific publications No. 139, pp. 47-59.

Steinmetz, K. A., and Potter, J. D. (1996). Vegetables, fruit, and cancer prevention: A review. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 96, 1027-1039.

Steinmetz, K. A., and Potter, J. D. (1991). Vegetables, fruit, and cancer. I. Epidemiology. Cancer Causes and Control 2, 325-357.

van Poppel, G., and Goldbohm, R. A. (1995). Epidemiologic evidence for B-carotene and cancer prevention. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 62(suppl), 1393S-1402S.

Willett, W. (1995). Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer. Environmental Health Perspectives 103, 165-170.

Willett, W. C. (1994). Micronutrients and cancer risk. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59 (suppl), 1162s-1165s.

Willett, W. C. (1997). Nutrition and cancer. Salud Publica de Mexico 39, 298-309.

Reviews on the influence of fruits and vegetables on breast cancer risk

Barnard, N. D., and Nicholson, A. (1997). Beliefs about dietary factors in breast cancer prevention among American women, 1991 to 1995. Preventive Medicine 26, 109-113.

Clavel-Chapelon, F., Niravong, M., and Joseph, R. R. (1997). Diet and breast cancer: review of the epidemiologic literature. Cancer Detection and Prevention 21, 426-440.

Franceschi, S. (1997). Micronutrients and breast cancer. European Journal of Cancer Prevention 6, 535-539.

Holmes, M. D., and Willett, W. C. (1995). Can breast cancer be prevented by dietary and lifestyle changes? Annals of Medicine 27, 429-430.

Howe, G. R., Hirohata, T., Hislop, T. G., Isovich, J. M., Yuan, J.-M., Katsouyanni, K., Lubin, F., Marubini, E., Modan, B., Rohan, T., Toniolo, P., and Shunzhang, Y. (1990). Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82, 561-569.

Hunter, D. J., and Willett, W. C. (1993). Diet, body size, and breast cancer. Epidemiologic Reviews 15, 110-129.

Hunter, D. J., and Willett, W. C. (1996). Nutrition and breast cancer. Cancer Causes and Control 7, 56-68.

King, S. E., and Schottenfeld, D. (1996). The “epidemic” of breast cancer in the U.S. – determining the factors. Oncology 10, 453-464.

Kohlmeier, L., and Mendez, M. (1997). Controversies surrounding diet and breast cancer. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56, 369-382.

Mezzetti, M., LaVecchia, C., Decarli, A., Boyle, P., Talamini, R., and Franceschi, S. (1998). Population attributable risk for breast cancer: diet, nutrition, and physical exercise. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 90, 389-394.

Rose, D., Connolly, J. M., and Liu, X. (1997). Diet and breast cancer: opportunities for prevention and intervention. Etiology of Breast and Gynecological Cancers, 147-158.

Stoll, B. A. (1996). Can supplementary dietary fibre suppress breast cancer growth? British Journal of Cancer 73, 557-559.

Original Epidemiological Studies

Epidemiologic studies: cohort

Braga, C., La Vecchia, C., Negri, E., Franceschi, S., and Parpinel, M. (1997). Intake of selected foods and nutrients and breast cancer risk: an age- and menopause-specific analysis. Nutrition and Cancer 28, 258-263.

DeStefani, E., Correa, P., Ronco, A., Mendilaharsu, M., Guidobono, M., and Deneo-Pellegrini, H. (1997). Dietary fiber and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study in Uruguay. Nutrition and Cancer 28, 14-19.

Djuric, Z., Depper, J. B., Uhley, V., Smith, D., Lababidi, S., Martino, S., and Heilbrun, L. K. (1998). Oxidative DNA damage levels in blood from women at high risk for breast cancer are associated with dietary intake of meats, vegetables, and fruits. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98, 524-528.

Hunter, D. J., Manson, J. E., Colditz, G. A., Stampfer, M. J., Rosner, B., Hennekens, C. H., Speizer, F. E., and Willett, W. C. (1993). A prospective study of the intake of vitamins C, E, and A and the risk of breast cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine 329, 234-240.

Mills, P. K., Beeson, W. L., Phillips, R. L., and Fraser, G. E. (1989). Dietary habits and breast cancer incidence among Seventh-day Adventists. Cancer 64, 582-590.

Rohan, T. E., Howe, G. R., Friedenreich, C. M., Jain, M., and Miller, A. B. (1993). Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study. Cancer Causes and Control 4, 29-37.

Verhoeven, D. T. H., Assen, N., Goldbohm, R. A., Dorant, E., Van’t Veer, P., Sturmans, F., Hermus, R. J. J., and van den Brandt, P. A. (1997). Vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene and dietary fiber in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. British Journal of Cancer 75, 149-155.

Epidemiologic studies: case-control

Dorant, E., van den Brandt, P. A., and Goldbohm, R. A. (1995). Allium vegetable consumption, garlic supplement intake, and female breast carcinoma incidence. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 33, 163-170.

Dorgan, J. F., Sowell, A., Swanson, C. A., Potischman, N., Miller, R., Schussler, N., and Stephenson, H. E. (1998). Relationships of serum carotenoids, retinol, a-tocopherol, and selenium with breast cancer risk: results from a prospective study in Columbia, Missouri (United States). Cancer Causes and Control 9, 89-97.

Franceschi, S., LaVecchia, C., Russo, A., Negri, E., Favero, A., and Decarli, A. (1997). Low-risk diet for breast cancer in Italy. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 6, 875-879.

Freudenheim, J. L., Marshall, J. R., Vena, J. E., Laughlin, R., Brasure, J. R., Swanson, M. K., Nemoto, T., and Graham, S. (1996). Premenopausal Breast Cancer Risk and Intake of Vegetables, Fruits, and Related Nutrients. Journal of National Cancer Institute 88, 340-348.

Graham, S., Hellmann, R., Marshall, J., Freudenheim, J., Vena, J., Swanson, M., Zielezny, M., Nemoto, T., Stubbe, N., and Raimondo, T. (1991). Nutritional epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in western New York. American Journal of Epidemiology 134, 552-566.

Graham, S., Marshall, J., Mettlin, C., Rzepka, T., Nemoto, T., and Byers, T. (1982). Diet in the epidemiology of breast cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology 116, 68-75.

Hislop, T. G., Coldman, A. J., Elwood, J. M., Brauer, G., and Kan, L. (1986). Childhood and recent eating patterns and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Detection and Prevention 9, 47-58.

Holmberg, L., Ohlander, E. M., Byers, T., Zack, M., Wolk, A., Bergstrom, R., Bergkvist, L., Thurfjell, E., Bruce, A., and Adami, H.-O. (1994). Diet and breast cancer risk: results from a population-based, case-control study in Sweden. Archives of Internal Medicine 154, 1805-1811.

Kato, I., Miura, S., Kasumi, F., Iwase, T., Tashiro, H., Fujita, Y., Koyama, H., Ikeda, T., Fujiwara, K., Saotome, K., Asaishi, K., Abe, R., Nihei, M., Ishida, T., Yokoe, T., Yamamoto, H., and Murata, M. (1992). A case-control study of breast cancer among Japanese women: with special reference to family history and reproductive and dietary factors. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 24, 51-59.

Katsouyanni, K., Trichopoulos, D., Boyle, P., Xirouchaki, E., Trichopoulou, A., Lisseos, B., Vasilaros, S., and MacMahon, B. (1986). Diet and breast cancer: a case control study in Greece. The Journal of Cancer 38, 815-820.

Katsouyanni, K., Willett, W., Trichopoulos, D., Boyle, P., Trichopoulou, A., Vasilaros, S., Papadiamantis, J., and MacMahon, B. (1988). Risk of breast cancer among Greek women in relation to nutrient intake. Cancer 61, 181-185.

La Vecchia, C., Decarli, A., Franceschi, S., Gentile, A., Negri, E., and Parazzini, F. (1987). Dietary factors and the risk of breast cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 10, 205-214.

La Vecchia, C., Ferraroni, M., Franceschi, S., Mezzetti, M., Decarli, A., and Negri, E. (1997). Fibers and breast cancer risk. Nutrition and Cancer 28, 264-269.

Lee, H. P., Gourley, L., Duffy, S. W., Esteve, J., Lee, J., and Day, N. E. (1991). Dietary effects on breast cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet 3737, 1197-1200.

Longnecker, M. P., Newcomb, P. A., Mittendorf, R., Greenberg, E. R., and Willett, W. C. (1997). Intake of carrots, spinach, and supplements containing vitamin A in relation to risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 6, 887-892.

Marubini, E., Decarli, A., Costa, A., Mazzoleni, C., Andreoli, C., Barbieri, A., Capitelli, E., Cavallo, F., Monferroni, N., Pastorino, U., and Salvini, S. (1988). The relationship of dietary intake and serum levels of retinol and beta-carotene with breast cancer. Cancer 61, 173-180.

Pierce, J. P., Faerber, S., Wright, F. A., Newman, V., Flatt, S. W., Kealey, S., Rock, C. L., Hryniuk, W., and Greenberg, E. R. (1997). Feasibility of a randomized trial of a high-vegetable diet to prevent breast cancer recurrence. Nutrition and Cancer 28, 282-288.

Potischman, N., McCulloch, C. E., Byers, T., Nemoto, T., Stubbe, N., Milch, R., Parker, R., Rasmussen, K. M., Root, M., Graham, S., and Campbell, T. C. (1990). Breast cancer and dietary and plasma concentrations of carotenoids and vitamin A. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 909-915.

Rao, D. N., Ganesh, B., and Desai, P. B. (1994). Role of reproductive factors in breast cancer in a low-risk area: a case-control study. British Journal of Cancer 70, 129-132.

Richardson, S., Gerber, M., and Cenee, S. (1991). The role of fat, animal protein, and some vitamin consumption in breast cancer: a case control study in southern France. The International Journal of Cancer 48, 1-9.

Rock, C. L., Saxe, G. A., Ruffin IV, M. T., August, D. A., and Schottenfeld, D. (1996). Carotenoids, vitamin A, and estrogen receptor status in breast cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 25, 281-296.

Tricholpoulou, A., Katsouyanni, K., Stuver, S., Tzala, L., Gnardellis, C., Rimm, E., and Trichopoulos, D. (1995). Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breast cancer risk in Greece. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 87, 110-116.

van’t Veer, P., Strain, J. J., Fernandez-Crehuet, J., Martin, B. C., Thamm, M., Kardinaal, A. F. M., Kohlmeier, L., Huttunen, J. K., Martin-Moreno, J. M., and Kok, F. J. (1996). Tissue antioxidants and postmenopausal breast cancer: The European Community Multicare Study on antioxidants, myocardial infarction, and cancer of the breast (EURAMIC). Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, and Prevention 5, 441-447.

Yuan, J.-M., Wang, Q.-S., Ross, R. K., Henderson, B. E., and Yu, M. C. (1995). Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. British Journal of Cancer 71, 1353-1358.

Zhang, S., Tang, G., Russell, R. M., Mayzel, K. A., Stampfer, M. J., Willett, W. C., and Hunter, D. J. (1997). Measurement of retinoids and carotenoids in breast adipose tissue and a comparison of concentrations in breast cancer cases and control subjects. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 66, 626-632.

Supplement use

Brody, J. E. (1998). Study finds possible harm from higher doses of vitamin C. In New York Times (New York, NY).

Dorant, E., Brandt, P. A. v. d., and Goldbohm, R. A. (1995). Allium vegetable consumption, garlic supplement intake, and female breast carcinoma incidence. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 33, 163-170.

Franceschi, S., La Vecchia, C., Russo, A., Negri, E., Favero, A., and Decarli, A. (1997). Low-risk diet for breast cancer in Italy. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 6, 875-879.

Freudenheim, J. L., Marshall, J. R., Vena, J. E., Laughlin, R., Brasure, J. R., Swanson, M. K., Nemoto, T., and Graham, S. (1996). Premenopausal Breast Cancer Risk and Intake of Vegetables, Fruits, and Related Nutrients. Journal of National Cancer Institute 88, 340-348.

Hunter, D. J., Manson, J. E., Colditz, G. A., Stampfer, M. J., Rosner, B., Hennekens, C. H., Speizer, F. E., and Willett, W. C. (1993). A prospective study of the intake of vitamins C, E, and A and the risk of breast cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine 329, 234-240.

Longnecker, M. P., Newcomb, P. A., Mittendorf, R., Greenberg, E. R., and Willett, W. C. (1997). Intake of carrots, spinach, and supplements containing vitamin A in relation to risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 6, 887-892.

Newman, V., Rock, C., Faerber, S., Flatt, S. W., Wright, F. A., and Pierce, J. P. (1998). Dietary supplement use by women at risk for breast cancer recurrence. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 98, 285-292.

Richardson, S., Gerber, M., and Cenee, S. (1991). The role of fat, animal protein, and some vitamin consumption in breast cancer: a case control study in southern France. The International Journal of Cancer 48, 1-9.

Rock, C. L., Newmann, V., Flatt, S. W., Faerber, S., Wright, F. A., and Pierce, J. P. (1997). Nutrient intakes from foods and dietary supplements in women at risk for breast cancer recurrence. Nutrition and Cancer 29, 133-139.

Rohan, T. E., Howe, G. R., Friedenreich, C. M., Jain, M., and Miller, A. B. (1993). Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study. Cancer Causes and Control 4, 29-37.

Verhoeven, D. T. H., Assen, N., Goldbohm, R. A., Dorant, E., van’t Veer, P., Sturmans, F., Hermus, R. J. J., and Brandt, P. A. v. d. (1997). Vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene and dietary fiber in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. British Journal of Cancer 75, 149-155

Studies on vegetarian diets

Bennett, F. C., and Ingram, D. M. (1990). Diet and female sex hormone concentrations: an intervention study for the type of fat consumed. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 808-812.

Campbell, T. C., and Junshi, C. (1994). Diet and chronic degenerative diseases: perspectives from China. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 59 (Supplement), 1153S-1161S.

Dwyer, J. T. (1988). Health aspects of vegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, 712-738.

Fentiman, I. S., Caleffi, M., Wang, D. Y., Hampson, S. J., Hoare, S. A., Clark, G. M. G., Moore, J. W., Bruning, P., and Bonfrer, J. M. G. (1988). The binding of blood-borne estrogens in normal vegetarian and omnivorous women and the risk of breast cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 11, 101-106.

Mills, P. K., Beeson, W. L., Phillips, R. L., and Fraser, G. E. (1989). Dietary habits and breast cancer incidence among Seventh-day Adventists. Cancer 64, 582-590.

Pedersen, A. B., Bartholomew, M. J., A. Dolence, L., Aljadir, L. P., Netteburg, K. L., and Lloyd, T. (1991). Menstrual differences due to vegetarian and nonvegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, 879-885.

Persky, V. W., Chatterton, R. T., Van Horn, L. V., Grant, M. D., Langenberg, P., and Marvin, J. (1992). Hormone levels in vegetarian and nonvegetarian teenage girls: potential implications for breast cancer risk. Cancer Research 52, 578-583.

Rao, D. N., Ganesh, B., and Desai, P. B. (1994). Role of reproductive factors in breast cancer in a low-risk area: a case-control study. British Journal of Cancer 70, 129-132.

Studies on the influence of fruits and vegetables on breast cancer survival

Guo, W. D., Chow, W. H., Zheng, W., Li, J. Y., and Blot, W. J. (1994). Diet, serum markers and breast cancer mortality in China. Japanese Journal of Cancer Research 85, 572-577.

Ingram, D. (1994). Diet and subsequent survival in women with breast cancer. British Journal of Cancer 69, 592-595.

Jain, M., and Miller, A. B. (1997). Tumor characteristics and survival of breast cancer patients in relation to premorbid diet and body size. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 42, 43-55.

Jain, M., Miller, A. B., and To, T. (1994). Premorbid diet and the prognosis of women with breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 86, 1390-1397.

Rohan, T. E., Hiller, J. E., and McMichael, A. J. (1993). Dietary factors and survival from breast cancer. Nutrition and Cancer 20, 167-177.

Studies on the mechanisms underlying the influence of fruits and vegetables on breast cancer risk

Bennett, F. C., and Ingram, D. M. (1990). Diet and female sex hormone concentrations: an intervention study for the type of fat consumed. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, 808-812.

Bradlow, H. L., Sepkovic, D. W., Telang, N. T., and Osborne, M. P. (1995). Indole-3-carbinol: A novel approach to breast cancer prevention. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 768, 180-200.

El-Bayoumy, K. (1994). Evaluation of chemopreventive agents against breast cancer and proposed strategies for future clinical intervention trials. Carcinogenesis 15, 2395-2420.

Crowell, P. L., Ayoubi, A. S., and Burke, Y. D. (1996). Antitumorigenic effects of limonene and perillyl alcohol against pancreatic and breast cancer. In Dietary Phytochemicals in Cancer Prevention and Treatment., American Institute for Cancer Research, ed. (New York: Plenum Press), pp. 131-136.

Crowell, P. L., Kennan, W. S., Haag, J. D., Ahmad, S., Vedejs, E., and Gould, M. N. (1992). Chemoprevention of mammary carcinogenesis by hydroxylated derivatives of d-limonene. Carcinogenesis 13, 1261-1264.

Fernandes, A. O., and Banerji, A. P. (1997). Long-term feeding of field bean protein containing protease inhibitors suppresses virus-induced mammary tumors in mice. Cancer Letters 116, 1-7.

Gehm, B. D., McAndrews, J. M., Chein, P.-Y., and Jameson, J. L. (1997). Resveratrol, a polyphenolic compound found in grapes and wine, is an agonist for the estrogen receptor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 94, 14138-14143.

Gelb, M. H., Tamanoi, F., Yokoyama, K., Ghomashchi, F., Esson, K., and Gould, M. N. (1995). The inhibition of protein prenyltransferases by oxygenated metabolites of limonene and perillyl alcohol. Cancer Letters 91, 169-175.

Gould, M. N. (1997). Cancer chemoprevention and therapy by monoterpenes. Environmental Health Perspectives 105, 977-979.

Grubbs, C. J., Steele, V. E., Casebolt, T., Juliana, M. M., Eto, I., Whitaker, L. M., Dragnev, K. H., Kelloff, G. J., and Lubet, R. L. (1995). Chemoprevention of chemically-induced mammary carcinogenesis by indole-3-carbinol. Anticancer Research 15, 709-716.

Ip, C., Lisk, D. J., and Thompson, H. J. (1996). Selenium-enriched garlic inhibits the early stage but not the late stage of mammary carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 17, 1979-1982.

Jang, M., Cai, L., Udeani, G. O., Slowing, K. V., Thomas, C. F., Beecher, C. W. W., Fong, H. H. S., Farnsworth, N. R., Kinghorn, A. D., Mehta, R. G., Moon, R. C., and Pezzuto, J. M. (1997). Cancer chemopreventive activity of resveratrol, a natural product derived from grapes. Science 275, 218-220.

Kall, M. A., Vang, O., and Clausen, J. (1996). Effects of dietary broccoli on human in vivo drug metabolizing enzymes: evaluation of caffeine, oestrone and chlorzoxazone metabolism. Carcinogenesis 17, 793-799.

Levy, J., Bosin, E., Feldman, B., Giat, Y., Miinster, A., Danilenko, M., and Sharoni, Y. (1995). Lycopene is a more potent inhibitor of human cancer cell proliferation than either a-carotene of B-carotene. Nutrition and Cancer 24, 257-266.

Lu, J., Pei, H., Ip, C., Lisk, D. J., Ganther, H., and Thompson, H. J. (1996). Effect of an aqueous extract of selenium-enriched garlic on in vitro markers and in vivo efficacy in cancer prevention. Carcinogenesis 17, 1903-1907.

Maltzman, T. H., Christou, M., Gould, M. N., and Jefcoate, C. R. (1991). Effects of monoterpenoids on in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation and on phase I hepatic metabolizing enzymes. Carcinogenesis 12, 2081-2087.

Mgbonyebi, O. P., Russo, J., and Russo, I. H. (1998). Antiproliferative effect of synthetic resveratrol on human breast epithelial cells. International Journal of Oncology 12, 865-869.

Michnovicz, J. J., Adlercreutz, H., and Bradlow, H. L. (1997). Changes in levels of urinary estrogen metabolites after oral indole-3-carbinol treatment in humans. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 89, 718-723.

Michnovicz, J. J., and Bradlow, H. L. (1991). Altered estrogen metabolism and excretion in humans following consumption of indole-3-carbinol. Nutrition and Cancer 16, 59-66.

Michnovicz, J. J., and Bradlow, H. L. (1990). Induction of estradiol metabolism by dietary indole-3-carbinol in humans. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82, 947-949.

Newcomb, P. A., Klein, R., Klein, B. E. K., Haffner, S., Mares-Perlman, J., Cruickshanks, K. J., and Marcus, P. M. (1995). Association of dietary and life-style factors with sex hormones in postmenopausal women. Epidemiology 6, 318-321.

Russin, W. A., Hoesly, J. D., Elson, C. E., Tanner, M. A., and Gould, M. N. (1989). Inhibition of rat mammary carcinogenesis by monoterpenoids. Carcinogenesis 10, 2161-2164.

Schaffer, E. M., Liu, J.-Z., Green, J., Dangler, C. A., and Milner, J. A. (1996). Garlic and associated allyl sulfur components inhibit N-methyl-N-nitrosourea induced rat mammary carcinogenesis. Cancer Letters 102, 199-204.

Sharoni, Y., Giron, E., Rise, M., and Levy, J. (1997). Effects of lycopene-enriched tomato oleoresin on 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene – induced rat mammary tumors. Cancer Detection and Prevention 21, 118-123.

So, F. V., Guthrie, N., Chambers, A. F., Moussa, M., and Carroll, K. K. (1996). Inhibition of human breast cancer cell proliferation and delay of mammary tumorigenesis by flavonoids and citrus juices. Nutrition and Cancer 26, 167-181.

Steinmetz, K. A., and Potter, J. D. (1991). Vegetables, fruit, and cancer. II. Mechanisms. Cancer Causes and Control 2, 427-442.

Telang, N. T., Katdare, M., Bradlow, H. L., Osborne, M. P., and Fishman, J. (1997). Inhibition of proliferation and modulation of estradiol metabolism: novel mechanisms for breast cancer prevention by the phytochemical indole-3-carbinol. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 216, 246-252.

van Poppel, G. (1993). Carotenoids and cancer: An update with emphasis on human intervention studies. European Journal of Cancer 29A, 1335-1344.

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Originally prepared by Julie Napieralski, Ph.D., BCERF.

 

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Robert Ross
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Medical Disclaimer

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